13 Was the Catholic Church late in denouncing slavery?

13 Was the Catholic Church late in denouncing slavery?

Mart-Jan de Jong[1]

Was the Catholic Church late in denouncing slavery? Yes, said Judge J. T. Noonan in his influential article published in 1993. The Catholic Church condoned slavery until 1860. For more than 15 centuries Popes, Cardinals and Bishops condoned or facilitated colonization and trading and owning men, women and children from Africa or African descendants.[2] No, said Military Chaplain Joel Panzer. He produced historical facts that showed that in the past a small number of all 267 popes have condemned slavery.^[3] The large majority of popes never enunciated whether they were for or against slavery. Of course, that should not surprise us, because for ages slavery has been seen as normal fact of life.

Long, long ago, Byzantine Bishop Gregory of Nyssa (c 335 – 394) declared and preached, on solid theological grounds, that slavery was inherently sinful.[4] His devout reading of the Bible told him that humans have a unique value. He strongly believed that God had created men and women in his own image and had endowed them with a free will. Therefore, Bishop Gregory concluded that all humans are equal and deserve to be treated with great respect. Hence, it is hubristic to claim absolute authority over fellow human beings and to enslave them.[5] Ancient stoic philosopher Seneca, who died in 65 AD, had criticized the cruelty of slave masters. He and his fellow stoics never questioned the institution of slavery. So, it appears that Gregory of Nyssa was the first ancient scholar and Christian theologian that wrote a sustained critique of the institution of slavery itself.

In 649, Pope Martin I was elected pope. The 74^th head of the Church of Rome had a very different take on slavery. He condemned all people who taught slaves about freedom and/or helped them escape.[6] But this cloud has a silver lining. His denunciation reveals that at least some people were opposing slavery in those days.

In 816, the Synod of Chelsea (England) proclaimed that at the death of a bishop all fellow bishops must emancipate one, two or more people that had become enslaved during the life of the deceased bishop.[7] This resolution to free a few slaves has little to do with propagating the idea that all slavery is wrong and should be abolished.

922: The Council of Koblenz forbids enslavement of Christians

In 922, the Council of Koblenz objected to the enslavement of Christians. The Council did not denounce the enslavement of believers of other religions. The Council had put Slavery of Christians on the agenda, because, ten years earlier, Vikings had conquered, sacked and destroyed much of the city of Koblenz. The Norsemen had captured and enslaved many men, women and children, most of them devout believers in Jesus Christ. Therefore, the Council declared seizing and selling Christians a major crime; equal to homicide and to be punished accordingly. Not condemning the enslavement of non-Christians can be seen as unfair and discriminatory, but in a largely Christian world it can also be viewed as a big, first, and necessary step on the road to general abolition. At least, it opened the door to putting question marks at the system of slavery. Thus it could lead to the insight that enslavement of non-Christians also is wrong. Enlightened thoughts like these might have haunted many Christian people with some sense of justice, people that abhor seeing people treated badly. They understand that other people want to be treated fairly too, as equals, as free men and women.

1074: Introducing celibacy and scaring priests with the enslavement of their wives

In 1074, Pope Gregory VII declared that any man who wished to become a priest was required to pledge celibacy. Gregory VII must have been a pathetic misogynist, for he said that: “Priests must first escape from the clutches of their wives.” Of course married priests and their spouses protested. Parishioners protested too. They valued the wives as positive contributors to the work of their local priests.[8] Despite the Pope’s decree, most married priests stayed with their wife. Also many bishops and cardinals went on enjoying the company of their wife or life companion. Of course this undermined the authority of Popes.

Fifteen years later, in 1089, a highly frustrated Pope Urban II ordered that the wives of priests had to be sold into slavery and to remain slaves until they died. Also this extremely inhumane pro-slavery pope ordered that all children of married priests must be kicked into the streets, leaving them no options but begging, prostitution or acceptance of enslavement.[9] Rumour has it that many of these ousted wives and children ended as slaves of Vatican prelates.[10] Why was Pope Urban II so harsh against married priests? Why was he so fanatic about celibacy that he condemned the wives of priests to a life in slavery? And why did he disregard that enslaving Christians had been forbidden by the Synod of Koblenz? Did he abhor the idea that wives and children of deceased priests would inherit money that otherwise could be put in the coffers of The Church?

Pro-slavery Pope Urban II led the Catholic Church from 1088 till 1099. He planned the first crusade against the expanding power of the Muslim world. He took the initiative for the first large scale military campaign to save Byzantium and to regain Jerusalem and the rest of “The Holy Land”, a territory much bigger than present day Israel and Palestine. The Turks had been ruling over Jerusalem for five centuries. Now, they threatened to topple the Byzantine Empire.[11] Emperor Alexios I, requested military support from the rest of the Christian world. 27 November 1095, during the Council of Clermont, Urban II, speaking to large crowd in Auvergne, declared that all Christians, rich and poor, noblemen and commoners, must stop their infighting. Instead, they should participate in a righteous religious war, as a soldier or as a generous donor. He shocked his audience by telling that an accursed and foreign race had destroyed numerous Christian churches and turned other churches into mosques. He added that these enemies of God had raped women and killed men and children; that they had desecrated altars and baptismal fonts with the blood of their victims.[12] According to chronicler Baldric of Dol, Pope Urban II stirred up his bewildered audience. He claimed that many Christians and Jews had been sold as slaves.[13] in his attempts to recruit more crusaders and financial support, he promised absolution of all sins and eternal peace in heaven to all those who might fall in this Holy War. To date, similar cheap promises are made to recruit young Moslems for jihad.

1179: Third Lateran Council: helpers of Muslims should be sold as slaves

In 1179, Pope Alexander III, again a pro-slavery pope, decreed that everyone who helped Muslims, Moors or Saracens, must be sold into slavery. Selling arms to Muslims or acting as captain or pilot in their galleys was viewed as high treason, as helping the downfall of Christendom.

… such persons should be cut off from the communion of the church … Catholic princes and civil magistrates should confiscate their possessions, and … become the slaves of their captors.[14]

In 1226, slavery was incorporated in the Corpus Iuris Canonici, promulgated by Pope Gregory IX.[15] Church law specialists mentioned four “just titles” for selling, buying and holding slaves:

Slaves captured in war,
People condemned for a crime,
Children of a mother who is a slave,
Persons selling themselves into slavery or children sold by their father.

Readers will be shocked to learn that the Catholic Church held on to these “just titles” for seven centuries; in particle that it was seen as just that children of an enslaved mother became enslaved by birth. It took almost 700 years, until 1913, before these “just titles” got scrapped. Within the clergy, revising decrees of popes, deemed to be infallible, never was a priority of legal specialists.

For centuries Christians kept defending slavery, including the most revered abbots, bishops, cardinals and popes. In the thirteenth century, priest, philosopher, theologian and jurist Thomas Aquinas (1224-1274) viewed enslavement as a tripartite creation of God, natural law and the “right of nations.” Who would dare to question such a rock solid view from this highly esteemed influencer? Moreover, during the period of the crusades enslavement of Moslems was applauded. Clearly, anyone who wanted to mitigate or end all slavery had to fight an uphill battle then. This even was true for Eugene IV, the first pope with an abolitionist mindset.

Eugene IV (1383-1447) forbids enslavement of Canary Island Natives

In 1435, Eugene IV, pope number 207, was the first pope that issued a decree against slavery: Sicut Dudum: Against the Enslaving of Black Natives from the Canary Islands.^[16] Gabriele Condulmer was born in 1383 as son of a rich merchant. Young Gabriele inherited a lot of money after his father’s death. He did not fancy luxury and despised decadence. He gave most of his fortune away, distributing 20,000 ducats to the poor. For him money was never an issue, and certainly not after his decision to become a friar. He had been attracted to the Augustinian ethos, with its focus on finding truths through learning and affectionate behaviour towards others. He stuck to his sober lifestyle after being elected Bishop of Rome in 1431^[17] Eugene IV differed from former popes in other ways too. He did not approve of nepotism, lacked tactfulness and took little interest in politics and financial affairs. This complicated his interactions with the high and mighty.^[18] Some of his disputes with princes and prelates turned into serious wars. Yet, continuously beleaguered by enemies, he also fought against slavery ardently.

Hundred years earlier, rogue Portuguese and Spanish sea-captains had raided Lanzarote and other Canary Islands, killing and capturing natives called Guanches. They were followed by Catholic missionaries, who succeeded to convert many of these “pagans”. Soon the Guanches learned that not all Christians were interested in their souls. In 1385 and 1392, Castilian expeditions sold hundreds of Canary Island natives, including converted ones. Did not they know that the Council of Koblenz of 922 had forbidden the enslavement of Christians.

In 1434, Fernando Calvetos, Bishop of the Canary Islands, informed Pope Eugene IV that Portuguese pirates and privateers were going with the enslavement of converted islanders. On the 29^th of September, Eugene IV issued his bull: Regimini Gregis Dominici, in which he explicitly condemned the enslavement of converted Guanches. To enable missionaries to continue their work, he ordered the Portuguese and Spanish to stop their raids and to free their enslaved bounty within a fortnight. It had no impact. So, 17December 1434, this emancipation decree was followed by Creator Omnium. Once more, Pope Eugene IV commanded the freeing of all converted Guanches and stated that disobedience would be punished with excommunication.^[19] This did not help either. So, 13 January 1435, a very annoyed Pope Eugene IV issued a third Papal letter, titled: Sicut Dudum. In this bull he reminded all Catholics that, even as previously:

“… some Christians (we speak of this with sorrow), with fictitious reasoning and seizing and opportunity, have approached said islands by ship, and with armed force taken captive and even carried off to land overseas very many persons of both sexes, taking advantage of their simplicity.”

And no less do We order and command all and each of the faithful of each sex, within the space of fifteen days of the publication of these letters in the place where they live, that they restore to their earlier liberty…. These people are to be totally and perpetually free, and are to be let go without the exaction or reception of money. If this is not done when the fifteen days have passed, they incur the sentence of excommunication by the act itself, from which they cannot be absolved, except at the point of death …[20]

The raiders and traders paid no attention to this Papal Decree. They refused to see the dark tanned islanders as fellow-humans, as real Christians or potential Christians.[21] They got support from Prince Henry of Portugal (1394-1460). The Prince was a very rich man with a lot of clout. As third surviving son of King John I he had little chance of succeeding his father. Hence, he had to do something special to make his mark on history. In 1420, he gained appointment as Grand Master of the Military Order of Christ, founded by King Deniz of Portugal in 1317. Prince Henry’s plan to explore the rest of the world already emerged in 1415, after he, his father, and his elder brothers had seized Ceuta, a harbor town and pirate’s nest in northern Morocco. For decades Arabs, Berbers and Ottomans had pestered Iberian ships as well as the coastal areas of Iberia, plundering and enslaving hundreds of people. These “Barbary Pirates” thought that no enemy fleet would ever dare to come Ceuta, to take revenge. Therefore, they were completely unprepared for the assault of the small armada of King John I and his sons.

After this easy military success, Prince Henry was appointed King’s Lieutenant of Ceuta. But Infante Dom Enrique longed for a much more challenging project. He wanted to explore and take advantage of the coasts of Africa. And, indeed, exactly this was what made him rich and famous. Ironically, this great front man from the Age of Discovery, this renowned stimulator and organizer of great maritime explorations, hardly ever sailed on a seaworthy ships to explore the world with his own eyes. His role, which was a very significant one, was meticulously organizing these explorative endeavors into the Great Unchartered World from behind his oaken desk. Ironically, he got nicknamed Henry the Navigator, a name that stuck and helped to keep his fame alive until this very day, especially among Portuguese nationalists.

Dom Enrique bounced back after each failed attempt. Captains and crews may have drowned, ships may have keeled over, but Henry the Navigator always made plans for new expeditions. He bought and hired new ships, captains and crews to continue his search for amazing discoveries. As far as we know, the farthest African location his ships have reached was present-day Sierra Leone. To help finance his costly projects, Dom Enrique abused his position as Grand-Master of the Order, shunting away great sums of money.[22] One of his most successful endeavors was the colonization of Madeira, an archipelago 520 kilometers west of Morocco. It did not take long before Henry the Navigator learned that buying and selling West-Africans and Guanches was highly profitable. No longer, European slave traders needed to buy captured Sub-Saharan Africans from Arabic traders.

When Dom Henrique learned that Eugene IV had ordered to put an end to this profitable trade, he threatened the Pope to withdraw his financial and military support for future crusades. Eugene IV yielded to Prince Henry’s demands and recalled Sicut Dudum in December 1442. Pope Eugene IV even granted full remission of sins to any Christian who took part in all “crusades against the Saracens” organized by Dom Henrique.[23] Once again the power of the Pope, the head of the Catholic Church, was broken by a powerful secular opponent. The forced condonement of Eugene IV widely opened the doors to the transatlantic slave trade. On the one hand, Pope Eugene IV was the first pope that took a truly anti-slavery initiative? Yet, he was pressed to yield to Henry The Navigator, that powerful prince and extremely rich merchant. The Head of the Church yielded, because he prioritized the successful outcomes of crusades over freeing captured Africans from slavery. Initially, he was a brave herald of abolition, but thanks to his U-turn, he never became one of its heroes. Neither would his successor.

Pope Nicolas V (1397-1455): Sanctifying the enslavement of non-Christians

Nicolas V succeeded Eugene IV in 1447. He was born in 1397 as son of a physician. His name was Thomas Parentucelli. He tutored children of rich families and studied in Bologna and Florence. There he took a great interest in the teachings of humanist scholars. In 1422, he gained a degree in theology. Bishop Niccoló Albergati of Bologna was so impressed with his sharp mind that he took him under his wings. Bishop Albergati gave him the chance to pursue his studies in Germany, France and England. When Albergati died in 1444, Parentucelli became his successor. In 1447, Parentucelli was elected Pontiff of Rome. He chose to be called Pope Nicholas V, in honor of his mentor.

The first priority of Nicolas V was practical: reinforcing Rome, repairing the streets, and building new aqueducts to restore the city’s water supply. His second priority was practical too. He aimed at the glorification of the Church: refurbishing Rome’s major basilicas and a dozen other churches. Nicolas V became a patron of the arts. His lavish spending on buildings, including eye-catching statues, paintings and frescos triggered much critique. It is noteworthy that Pope Nicholas V stimulated humanist thinking too. His attitude towards humanism stood in sharp contrast to that of his predecessors. They feared that humanist learning could lead to heresy and schisms, whereas Pope Nicolas V believed that it could become a useful tool for intellectual growth and the cultural aggrandizement of Rome.

His penchant for humanism was not always reflected in his politics. Nicholas V took some decisions that made him one of the greatest facilitators of the Atlantic slave trade. How did this happen? In 1452, Constantine IX, the Christian Byzantine Emperor had asked him for military support to fence off the Ottomans. In a vindictive mood, Pope Nicolas V authorized King Alfonso V of Portugal to

“Invade, search out, capture, vanquish, and subdue all Saracens and pagans whatsoever and other enemies of Christ …and to reduce [their] persons to perpetual slavery …” [24]

The military support came too late. Constantinople fell after a siege of 53 days. The 29^th of May 1453, Emperor Constantine XI and his whole entourage got killed in a last desperate charge against the Turks. In 1455, a very revengeful Pope Nicolas V issued Romanus Pontifex. This papal decree sanctified invading and conquering non-Christian lands and enslaving its inhabitants.[25] It granted King Alfonso V a monopoly over all trade with any Saracens and infidels, though he was not allowed to sell weapons to them. He permitted the purchase of black slaves from Muslims and other non-Christians.[26] Nicholas V was convinced that he had a God-given right or mission to hand over half the non-Christian world to a befriended European King. Thus Portugal became the first architect and contractor of the Atlantic slave trade. It has been estimated that Portuguese merchants bought and shipped roughly six million captured Africans to South America, primarily to Brazil.[27]

Pope Innocent VIII, supporter of slavery

Pope Innocent VIII (1432-1492) never opposed slavery. He was a son of the viceroy of Naples and baptized as Giovanni Battista Cybo. As a rich adolescent he enjoyed a boisterous student life, siring two illegitimate children“towards whom his nepotism had been as lavish as it was shameless.”[28] His lush life did hinder his career within the clergy. He was elected eHewas wasPontiff in 1484. While leading the Catholic Church he sired at least six more children by different mistresses.

Pope Innocent VIII excommunicated King Ferdinand of Naples, who had supported his rival Rodrigo Borgia. Fighting Naples and other Italian States drained the coffers of the Vatican. Hence, Pope Innocent VIII felt impelled to sell Church offices and to accept bribes. More than once he was obliged to hand over his miter and tiara as security for new loans. In 1488, King Ferdinand of Aragon donated 100 enslaved Moors. Innocent VIII handed them over to his cardinals and other Vatican officials.[29] When he died, he left the Papal States in a dismal state of insolvency and anarchy.[30] His successor Alexander VI, elected on August 11, 1492, failed to clean up this mess. He showed very little interest in theological affairs, nor in the wellbeing of Rome’s citizens, but strongly focused on enlarging his power and his wealth, and that of his bastard sons and daughters. He betrayed his associates, arranged the murder of people who stood in his way, and stole huge sums from the Church. Innocent VIII died after drinking a glass of wine laced with arsenic, probably meant for somebody else.[31]

Alexander VI enables the suppression and enslavement of indigenous people

Alexander VI (1431-1503), successor of Innocent VIII, also was a very wicked person. To get elected, he had bought many votes and bribed his rival. He was born in Spain as Rodrigo Lanzol. As soon as his maternal uncle Alonso de Borja became Pope, he adopted his mother’s family name, betting that this might help his career. And right he was. Two years later he was appointed Vice-Chancellor of the Roman Church. As such he did not waste time to abuse this office to enrich him.

After Christopher Columbus discovered the West Indies, the Spanish king asked the new pope to confirm the Spanish claim on all newly found territories. The 4^th of May 1493, Pope Alexander VI issued in his bull Inter Caetera. This title simply means: “among other things”. Choosing a title like this reveals that, to this pope, giving his blessing to the conquering of foreign nations was an unimportant item on his to-do-list for that day in May. He granted the Kingdoms of Castile and Leon the right to overpower and, implicitly, to enslave an unlimited number of indigenous people. Thus, he simply reconfirmed whatPope Nicholas V had decreed 38 years earlier. Its main dictum was that any land inhabited by infidels could be claimed, colonized, and exploited by Christian rulers; that all newly discovered “barbarous nations” must be conquered, the faith must be spread and that God-fearing European men should teach indigenous people good Christian morals. So in 1493, this “Doctrine of Discovery” became the legal basis of all European Claims on American soil and last, but not least, the legitimation for the foundation of the United States.[32] In 1823, the US Supreme Court unanimously echoed “that the principle of discovery gave European nations an absolute right to New World lands.”

Thanks to the brave and stubborn activities of abolitionists the general view on slavery did change in the 18^th and 19^th century. In 1993, the Indigenous Law Institute asked Pope John Paul II to revoke Inter Caetera and to recognize the human rights of all indigenous non-Christian peoples. At first this request was ignored, as was a similar appeal by the Parliament of World Religions.[33] Eight years later, on 22 November 2001, Pope John Paul II issued his apostolic letter Ecclesia in Oceania. On behalf of The Church he expressed deep regret and asked forgiveness for all the wrongs done to indigenous peoples, in particular the separation of children from their parents.

“The past cannot be undone, but honest recognition of past injustices can lead to measures and attitudes which will help to rectify the damaging effects for both the indigenous community and the wider society.”[34]

It tookthe Catholic Church more than 500 years to renounce its former official stance on the right of Catholic Monarchs to submit all non-Christian people under the pretext of being assigned by God to spread the Christian faith and to save the souls of all infidels. A very bizarre aspect of this all is that this attempt to “save the soul of all infidels” by sword and enslavement was laid down in a bull issued by Alexander VI, the most immoral and most indecent pope ever. This shameless Head of the Church organized many orgies and fathered several children. Openly, he acknowledged his fatherhood, supported them financially and parachuted them in lucrative positions.[35] During his pontificate the Italianized name Borgia became a byword for libertinism and nepotism.[36]

Pope Julius II (1443-1513): another supporter of colonialism

Pope Julius II succeeded Alexander VI in 1503. The new pope also was very fond of having money, sex and power. Yet, in his view, his predecessor had desecrated the Holy Church as none before. Therefore, Julius II forbade anyone to speak or think of his predecessor again.

“His name and memory must be forgotten. It must be crossed out of every document and memorial. His reign must be obliterated. All paintings made of the Borgias … must be covered with black crepe. All the tombs of the Borgias must be opened and their bodies sent back to where they belong – to Spain.”

Pope Julius’ disgust of his predecessor was so excessive that he refused to live and work in the same rooms in which Alexander VI had lived, schemed and sinned. He ordered to close all these apartments. They remained sealed for more than 300 years. He also removed all “Italian” Borgias from power and sent them back to Spain.[37]

Pope Julius II was born as Giuliano della Rovero in Albisola (Genoa). He was the son of the only brother of Pope Sixtus VI. He chose to be named Pope Julius II, because he admired Julius Caesar and wished to rule over the entire Christian world like an emperor. Pope Sixtus had made him a cardinal at age 28, though Giuliano had never shown any interest in religious affairs. His hyperactive body and mind were set on military campaigns and sexual affairs. Julius II fathered at least one illegitimate daughter when he was a cardinal.^[38] Also he was corrupt, bribed people and used other forms of political trickery. He has to be credited for restoring the financial situation of the Vatican and helped the unification of Italy. He was a great patron of the Arts. In 1505, he commissioned Michelangelo to make a sculpture of a prisoner, to symbolize that all men are “enslaved” by the original sins of the flesh. Before Michelangelo really got started, looking for excellent pieces of marble, the pope asked him to paint the ceilings of the Sistine Chapel first. As the sculpture was meant for the pope’s tomb, Michelangelo thought that this project could wait. He was wrong. Michelangelo finished the sculpture almost a year after the pope died. It never adorned the tomb of Julius II. Presently, the sculpture, named The Dying, can be admired in museum The Louvre in Paris.

In many respects Julius II was a great improvement on Alexander VI, but he did nothing to ameliorate the plight of slaves. On the contrary: in 1506, he reconfirmed papal support for the Spanish and Portuguese colonization of the world. And so did Pope Clement VII (1478-1534), another Christian soul saviour by “force and arms”. In 1529, he reconfirmed the ecclesiastical and territorial rights of Spain. He recommended to govern:

“not only by edicts and admonitions, but also by force and arms, if needful, in order that their souls may partake of the heavenly kingdom.”[39]

Pope Paul III: Withdrawing his decree against enslavement of “Indians”

Pope Paul III (1468 – 1549), took an entirely different position. He condemned colonial slavery. Pope number 220 was born as Allessandro Farnese in 1468, on the day that gives leap years one day extra. He received a humanist education in Pisa and started his career as an apostolic notary at the court of Lorenzo de Medici. In 1491, he joined the Roman Curia, which comprises the administrative institutions of the Holy See. In his twenties he had lived a loose life, fallen in love with Silvia Ruffini and fathered three sons and two of her daughters. This did not hamper his career, partly because his beautiful sister, Julia (Giulia la Bella) was a mistress of Pope Alexander VI. Therefore, some people called him Borgia’s brother-in-law. In 1493, Alexandre VI made him Cardinal-Deacon, though the 25 year old Farnese was not an ordained priest. He was ordained much later, in 1519. He got reprimanded and ended his love affair with Silvia Ruffini. From then on, he led a pious life.[40]

The pontificate of Paul III covered fifteen turbulent years. He was confronted with the ascendancy of the Protestant Reformation and the revolutionary science of Nicolaus Copernicus. Protestants, headed by Martin Luther, attacked the Catholic Church with theological arguments. Copernicus and other scientists based their critique on scientific arguments and proofs. Pope Paul III installed a counsel of nine eminent prelates to launch a counter-reformation. In 1537, they produced a report full of ideas to restore respect for The Church, cleansing it of gross abuses in the Curia.[41] The pope welcomed the report, but political circumstances forced him to focus on fighting Catholic Kings and Turkish invaders. Paul III took good care of his family, continually increasing their influence and wealth. As a seasoned nepotist he made his son Duke of Parma and his grandsons cardinal before they reached the age of twenty. He too was a patron of arts and architecture.

In 1537, Pope Paul III issued Subliminus Deus: On the Enslavement and Evangelization of Indians (1537) . He enunciated that Native Indians are true men, and that they and other people “… even though they are outside the faith … are not to be reduced to slavery.”[42] In Pastorale Officium, the accompanying brief, he proscribed sanctions such as the excommunication of slave owners. For true believers being excommunicated is the harshest church sanction one could think of. Threatening slave owners with ex-communication, is a true hallmark of the pope’s abolitionism. Western abolitionists tend to see Sublimus Deus as the most important papal bull issued on the plight and the rights of Native Americans.[43] For them it is the “Magna Charta” for the human rights of indigenous peoples. Presently, fighters for the rights of indigenous people are not so positive.

In 1538, Sublimus Deus was effectively annulled due to a dispute with the Spanish Crown and The Council of The West Indies.[44] The Spanish Monarchs and political rulers argued that its content conflicted with the Patronato Real, Royal rights granted by Pope Alexandre VI in 1493. Pope Alexander VI assumed that he, as Head of The Catholic Church, had the God-given authority to grant the Spanish Crown sovereignty over all the land within 100 leagues, about 500 kilometers, west and south of any of the islands of the Azores or Cape Verde. But sometimes, even leaders of the Catholic Church can be overruled by world leaders with big armies. This time it was Pope Paul III who had to swallow this fact; deeply humiliated he was and compelled to withdrew Pastorale Officium.[45] Maybe this is the reason why Sublimus Deus is not mentioned in the authoritative compendium of official teachings of the Catholic Church. Nonetheless, later fray Bartolomeo de Las Casas and other ardent Catholic abolitionists kept referring to Sublimus Deus.[46] De las Casas argued that the devil had poisoned the minds of colonizers with the mistaken idea that native Americans could be enslaved simply because they were no Christians. He referred to New Testament verses stating that all humans could become true believers.[47] Therefore, Christians are not allowed to rob natives from their freedom.

In 1545, cornered by his opponents in Spain and the West Indies, Paul III felt compelled to cancel an earlier law that allowed slaves living in Rome to claim their freedom. In a personal letter, he authorized slavery again.

“By reason of our pastoral office, we gladly attend to the trouble (due to the lack of slaves) of individual Christians … and … that the effect of a multitude of slaves is that inherited estates are enriched, agricultural property is better looked after and cities extended, and desiring to provide security against loss for the people … (we decree) that each and every person of either sex, when Roman or non-Roman, whether secular or cleric, and no matter what dignity, status, degree, order or condition they be, may freely and lawfully buy and sell publicly any slave …, and make contracts about them as slaves and make use of their work, and compel them to do the work assigned to them.”[48]

So, Pope Paul III, the very pope that started his reign with a strong stance against the slavery of Christianized indigenous people, felt compelled to make a U-turn twice and to condone the old and cruel practice slavery in and outside Rome.

Pope Gregory XIV (1535-1591) issues a new ban on slavery

It took more than four decades before Pope Gregory XIV issued a new ban on slavery. Gregory XIV was born in 1535. His birth name was Niccoló Sfrondati. His mother died in child-birth. His father Francesco Sfrondati was a Milanese senator. The death of his wife triggered an astonishing career switch; the senator decided to become a priest. In 1544, Pope Paul III appointed Francesco as Cardinal-Priest. Niccoló, his son, studied at the Universities of Perugia and Padua and acquired a doctorate in church law as well as in civil law. This great intellectual achievement, combined with superb social connections, smoothed his career. He became Bishop of Cremona in 1560, Cardinal-Priest in 1583 and Pope on 5 December 1590. When he was elected, he burst out in tears and said to the Cardinals: “God forgive you! What have you done?” He always was a man of piety and extreme asceticism and never had aspired to become pope.[49]

His health was rather weak, but he marked his very brief pontificate with a vigorous intervention. He organized an invasion of France, excommunicated King Henry IV, the one and only Protestant King of France. Monthly the Pope sent a subsidy to the Catholic League in Paris to help them fight French Protestants, called Huguenots. Henry IV, the nominal King of France since 1589, received military and financial support from Protestant England. At first, Henry IV was victorious in Ivry and Arces, but he failed to conquer Paris. On the 25^th of July 1593, King Henry declared that “Paris is well worth a mass” and renounced Protestantism. The following year he was crowned King of France. In 1598, he decreed the Edict of Nantes, which gave toleration to the Huguenots. This angered fanatical Catholics. They wanted to kill or oust all Protestants. Twelve years later, in 1610, Henry IV got killed by François Ravaillac, one of those fanatics.[50]

For Pope Gregory XIV ending slavery was an urgent matter. On 18 April 1591, four month after taking office, he proclaimed Cum Sicuti. This bull was addressed to the bishop of Manila. It decreed that the conquerors of the Philippines should free all “Indian” slaves.[51] There is reason to think that Pope Gregory issued this decree at the request of King Philip II of Spain. Philip II had always wanted to expand his empire until it stretched around the globe. Slavery existed in the Philippine archipelago before the Spanish invasion. It did not take long before the colonisers seized and enslaved indigenous people. King Philip II, who was a staunch Catholic, stimulated the conversion all Filipinos. Christian subjects of the King could not be held as slaves. So, following the orders of Philip II, Governor-General Legazpi freed the slaves.[52] As many Filipinos could not pay the Spanish taxes, they went into debt bondage and slavery re-emerged. The system became so common that almost every Spanish soldier held slaves for doing domestic chores and sexual favors. When King Philip II got aware of this, he appointed a special “Protector of the Indios.” Meanwhile, the social and economic system had become heavily dependent on slavery. It was impossible to abandon it overnight. It had to be implemented gradually. The Spanish General Assembly of 1586 proposed that all children are considered to be born free; that no new slaves will be made and that slaves must pay a fair price for their freedom. But the king rejected this compromise. He went on with enforcing laws to punish Spanish colonists who were holding slaves. Cum Sicuti had no positive effect. It induced all kinds of illegal methods, such as importing enslaved people from Africa, to keep the Philippine slave system intact.

We should realize that all pro-abolition popes and bishops had to fight a strong head wind to break away from wide spread pro-slavery views inside and outside the clergy. Take the purely economic view of Austrian Jesuit Paulus Laymann (1754 – 1635) on the issue why children of enslaved mothers should become slaves the day they were born. In his five volume Manual of Moral Theology, widely used in seminaries, he argued that since a pregnant slave-mother is withdrawn from service to her master during several months and may even die while giving birth or shortly afterwards, the master can be regarded as being fairly compensated for the loss of work-time or the loss of a female slave.[53] (Feminism did not exist in those days.)

1639: Pope Urbanus VIII prohibits enslavement of indigenous people.

Pope Urbanus VIII (1568-1644) was the son of a Florentine nobleman and had received primary and secondary education from Jesuits. He went to university, got a doctorate in Law and became a papal envoy to the court of King Henry IV. He was elected Pope on 6 August 1623, pushed missionary work and was a prominent patron of the arts. And he made war to expand papal territory. Because making war led to huge debts.[54]

Pope Urbanus VIII deplored slavery. In 1639, he promulgated Commissum Noblis. This was an anti-slavery bull in support of the Spanish king. Philip IV had prohibited the enslavement of indigenous people in Latin America, in particular the use of slaves in compounds built for the accommodation of missionaries. Time and again, the need for cheap labour led to the return of a system of slavery in overseas colonies. Hence, several popes had to repeat that slavery had been prohibited by earlier popes. But this tended to be forgotten by most Catholics, since most popes showed little interest in this issue and tolerated the continuation of slavery overseas. Urbanus VIII felt obliged to underline that the penalty for enslaving indigenous people was excommunication.

Pope Benedict XIV (1675 – 1758)

Prospero Lambertini was born in 1675 in Bologna to noble but impoverished parents. He was elected Pope in 1740 and chose to be named Benedict XIV. He was an excellent student and earned a doctoral degree in theology and law in 1694, nineteen years of age. His priesthood started four years later. In 1702, he was called to the post of devil’s advocate, a post he held for more than twenty years. He was made bishop of Theodosia 1727 and archbishop of Bologna in 1731. He was greatly loved as a pastor and an efficient administrator who continued to write scholarly works on theological and literary topics.

When he was made a cardinal he wrote to a friend: “One must have a very firm belief in the Pope’s infallibility to think he has made no mistake over my promotion.” After the death of Pope Clement XII, the conclave of cardinals remained deadlocked for many months. Annoyed by the lack of progress, he told his colleagues: “If you wish to elect a saint choose Gotti; a statesman Aldobrandini; an honest man, elect me.” They elected him. As a devout pope, he held on to a sober lifestyle. Since he thoroughly hated nepotism, he wrote his friends and nephews that they need not come to Rome to ask him for a prestigious job.

Benedict loved to walk around and talk with common people about their thoughts and everyday worries. He also liked to exchange letters with learned people, such as Enlightenment philosopher Voltaire.[55] Being Pope, he felt responsible for the welfare and souls of all Catholics all over the world. To his dismay he learned that, despite all former prohibitions, many Catholics still were incarcerating, enslaving, lashing or even killing enslaved natives. As head of The church he also feared that this maltreatment would turn indigenous people away from Jesus.

A few days before Christmas 1741 Benedict XIV sent his bull Immensa Pastorum to the King of Portugal and the Bishops of Brazil, commanding humane treatment for all Native Indians, non-converted ones included. No longer should they be enslaved, driven from their land, separated from their wife and children, nor robbed from their goods. The pope had received information that also Jesuit missionaries committed cruelties in their drive to rob indigenous people from their “false Gods” and to convert them to Christianity and a “civilized” way of life. This inhumane behaviour triggered several uprisings. Therefore, Benedict XIV decided to disband the missionary institutions (reducciones) that had been established to save souls and to train natives all kinds of new skills for cottage industries. His top priority was gaining souls for Christ, albeit in a non-coercive way. He reconfirmed the prohibitions laid down in the Briefs of Paul III and Urbanus VIII.[56] A whole series of Benedict’s successors paid no attention to slavery, but Pope Pius VII, elected in 1800 was a fervent abolitionist. .

Vienna 1815: Pope Pius VII proposes to phase out slavery.

Pius VII was born in Cesena on 14 August 1742 as Barnaba Niccolò Maria Luigi Chiaramonti. He was the youngest son of Count Scipione Chiaramonti. His mother was the daughter of Marquess Ghini. His parents were not rich, but well-to-do. He joined the order of Saint Benedict in in 1756, aged 14. Two years later he started teaching at Benedictine colleges in Parma and Rome. He was ordained a priest in 1765. Pius VI, his predecessor, appointed him as Bishop of Tivoli and Cardinal-Priest of San-Callisto in 1785.

In 1800, after a 14 week conclave, he was elected pope. He steered the Catholic Church through turbulent times after the French Revolution. The leaders of the French Revolution loathed religion. The Revolutionary Government of the new Republic of France had closed the churches. Pope Pius VII did whatever he could to restore relations with France, to reopen the churches so that all Catholics could go to mass again, however, without success. He came into conflict with Napoleon Bonaparte. In 1808, French troops invaded Rome in 1808. Napoleon planned to annex the Papal States to France. June 10, 1809, Pius VII excommunicated the invaders. Next, he was captured by French troops and taken to France, where he remained in exile until the allies invaded France in 1814.

In 1815, at the international congress in Vienna, organized after Napoleon’s demise at Waterloo, Pius VII was represented by Cardinal Secretary of State Ercole Consalvi. On behalf of Pope Pius Consalvi tried to convince the gathered politicians that Atlantic slave trade had to be phased out and stopped. His words fell on deaf ears. The Pope and the Cardinal might claim great authority in Rome, but outside Rome, political leaders showed little appetite for their demands, particularly directed at Spain and Portugal. In September 1814 Pius VII had written a letter to King Louis XVIII of France to demand abolition. He defined the sale of people as an injustice to the dignity of humans. In 1823, in a letter to John VI, the king of Portugal, he wrote: “the pope regrets that this trade in black, that he believed having ceased, is still exercised in some regions and in even more cruel ways.” He begged him to extirpate this unholy and abominable shame.[57]

In his letter to the king of Portugal, he wrote: “the pope regrets that this trade in blacks, that he believed having ceased, is still exercised in some regions and even more cruel way. He begs and begs the King of Portugal that it implement all its authority and wisdom to extirpate this unholy and abominable shame.” Though the Brits had forbidden the Atlantic Slave Trade in 1807, in France, Spain and Portugal the time was not yet ripe for setting crucial steps on the path to abolition. Also, in general the Catholic Church remained very hesitant.

Pope Gregory XVI (1765 – 1846)

Pope Gregory XVI was born on September 18, 1765 in Belluno, Venetia, then part of Austria. His name of birth was Bartelomeo Alberto Mauro Cappellari. In 1799 he published book in which he detested innovations. (Translated title: The Triumph of the Holy See Against the Assaults of the Innovators). Gregory XVI was an incurable opponent of democracy, liberalism and republicanism he fervently supported exemplars of the endangered species of European monarchs. He even attempted to ban locomotives, trains and railway tracks. His arch-conservatism did not disqualify him for the most prestigious position in the Church of Rome. Pope Leo XII made him cardinal in 1825. He was elected pope on February 2, 1831. As pope he always defended the infallible authority of the papacy. He refused to support the liberal Catholic movement in France. However, his arch conservativism did not block his opposition against slavery and his strong support for abolition. He also encouraged the training of indigenous priests in missionary lands.

In 1839, four centuries after Pope Gregory III issued the first papal bull against colonial slavery, Pope Gregory XVI affixed his seal to his decree In Supremo Apostulatus, praying that his bull would achieve what earlier anti-slavery bulls had failed to achieve. He points to the apostles of Jesus that have tried to mitigate the suffering of the slaves.

But — We say with profound sorrow — there were to be found afterwards among the Faithful men who, shamefully blinded by the desire of sordid gain, in lonely and distant countries, did not hesitate to reduce to slavery Indians, Negroes and other wretched peoples, or else, by instituting or developing the trade in those who had been made slaves by others, to favour their unworthy practice.[58]

Most Christian colonists never heard of this bull and those who did, ignored their content.“Benedict XIV.” Encyclopedia of World Biography. . Encyclopedia.com. (March 13, 2018). http://www.encyclopedia.com/history/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/benedict-xiv “Benedict XIV.” Encyclopedia of World Biography. . Retrieved March 13, 2018 from Encyclopedia.com: http://www.encyclopedia.com/history/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/benedict-xiv Print this articlePrint all entries for this topicCite this articleBenedict XIV (Pope) (1675–1758; Reigned 1740–1758) Europe, 1450 to 1789: Encyclopedia of the Early Modern World
COPYRIGHT 2004 The Gale Group Inc.BENEDICT XIV (POPE) (1675–1758; reigned 1740–1758BENEDICT XIV (POPE) (1675–1758; reigned 1740–1758), Italian pope. Born in Bologna as Prospero Lambertini into a patrician family of modest means on 31 March 1675, he earned a doctorate in theology and a double doctorate in canon and civil law in 1694. Lambertini then became a curial official, rising to important positions in the Congregation of the Council and Congregation of Rites. He was appointed archbishop of Ancona in 1727, made cardinal in 1728, and archbishop of Bologna in 1731. Lambertini was probably the most prolific papal scholar since the Middle Ages. His most enduring work was a four-volume study of the history of canonization (1734–1738), which proposed new procedures followed until the late twentieth century. He also wrote a history of episcopal synods, supporting their use (1748), and works in liturgy and canon law. The complete edition of his works appeared in twelve folio volumes between 1747 and 1751.When Clement XII died on 6 February 1740, Lambertini was not considered a candidate for pope. But after six months of stalemate and negotiations, he was elected on the 255th ballot on 17 August 1740. Benedict XIV pursued policies of conciliation, moderation, and openness to contemporary intellectual trends. But he had to contend with war and Catholic monarchs determined to rule the church in their lands. Benedict XIV inherited state-church disputes with most of the Catholic monarchies of Europe; they demanded control over church appointments, that church properties be taxed, and that clergymen be subject to civil jurisdiction. Benedict concluded new concordats with Piedmont-Savoy (1741), the Kingdom of Naples (1741), Portugal (1745), Spain (1753), and Austria (1757). Because he was negotiating from weakness, he had to make substantial concessions. In the most extreme case, he gave the Spanish crown the right of appointment to twelve thousand church positions in Spain, leaving the papacy with the right to appoint only fifty-two minor offices. Benedict was forced to concede much in order to retain Spain’s support at a time when Austrian armies were ravaging Italy and the papal state during the War of the Austrian Succession (1740–1748). While he conceded rights of patronage, he probably increased the moral authority of papacy and earned goodwill. Benedict also had to deal with Frederick II, king of Prussia and a nominal Protestant. Frederick annexed Catholic Silesia in 1741 and began to impose civil legislation on Silesia’s Catholics in marriage laws, benefices, and jurisdiction. After lengthy negotiations, the pope and Frederick reached an uneasy accommodation in 1748, even though Frederick did not completely keep his word. Still, European public opinion praised Benedict for his willingness to seek accommodation with a Protestant and absolutist ruler. In internal church matters and administration of the papal state, Benedict had greater success. He emphasized the formation of the clergy and the obligation of residence and of regular pastoral visits to his bishops. He prohibited religious excesses by banning trumpets in church services and eliminating public flagellations and some feast days on which work was suspended. In 1742 he resolved a bitter dispute concerning the extent to which missionaries might include other traditions in church rites. Benedict curbed the Jesuit use of Chinese rites but permitted some accommodation to Indian culture (“Malabar rites”).Benedict XIV was open and sympathetic to the activities of some of the leading scholars of the century and enjoyed their company. He supported Ludovico Muratori (1672–1750), Italy’s leading historian, some of whose positions on church-state matters displeased the papacy. He added new professorships to the universities of Rome and Bologna, enlarged the Vatican Library collections, and restored some of the monuments of Rome. He provided the money for the completion of the Trevi Fountain in 1742.

In 1745 Voltaire (1694–1778) wrote to Benedict to ask if he would accept the dedication of his play, Mahomet. Benedict agreed, and sent Voltaire some gold medals in return, as was the custom. After Voltaire made the correspondence known, Benedict received criticism for his friendly relations with the notorious anticlerical. He responded that it was important to have some links with a person of such importance in the world of letters. The gesture earned praise from partisans of the Enlightenment across Europe, including Protestant England.

However, the differences between the papacy and the Enlightenment remained strong. Benedict placed Montesquieu’s Esprit des lois (Spirit of the laws) on the Index of Prohibited Books in 1752, and he renewed the church’s condemnation of Freemasonry in 1751. Benedict XIV died on 3 May 1758.

Benedict XIV displayed an openness to Enlightenment thinkers and willingness to embrace change. Perhaps his greatest success was communication with writers and scholars, especially Italians. He negotiated concordats with Catholic rulers but was unable to improve substantially the position of the church. Probably no papal action would have staved off the assaults that began in the 1760s with the suppression of the Jesuits and continued with the seizure of church properties and the suppression of Catholicism during the French Revolution. Benedict XIV stands as a pope who practiced openness and moderation in troubled times with mixed results.

See also Austrian Succession, War of the (1740–1748) ; Enlightenment ; Frederick II (Prussia) ; Muratori, Ludovico Antonio ; Papacy and Papal States ; Voltaire.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Haynes, Renée. Philosopher King. The Humanist Pope Benedict XIV. London, 1970. Concentrates on his career before becoming pope and scholarship.

Pastor, Ludwig von. The History of the Popes from the Close of the Middle Ages. Vol. 25: Benedict XIV (1740–1758). Vol. 26: Benedict XIV (1740–1758). Clement XIII (1758–1769). Translated by E. F. Peeler. St. Louis, 1949 and 1950. Detailed account of his pontificate.

Rosa, Mario. “Benedetto XIV.” Dizionario biografico degli italiani. Vol. 8, pp. 393–408. Rome, 1966. Excellent summary of his life with extensive bibliography.

——.Riformatori e ribelli nel ‘700 religioso italiano. Bari, 1969. Pp. 49–85, 264–265 deal with Benedict XIV.

Paul F. Grendler

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Benedict XIV

The Columbia Encyclopedia, 6th ed.

Benedict XIV, 1675–1758, pope (1740–58), an Italian (b. Bologna) named Prospero Lambertini; successor of Clement XII. Long before his pontificate he was renowned for his learning and wrote a classic treatise on the subject of canonization (1734–38). In 1728 he became a cardinal. He was much interested in the Eastern churches and began (with the bull Etsi pastoralis, 1742) the modern papal legislation that favors the Eastern rites and prohibits activity that is likely to Latinize them. He beautified Rome and restored monuments, and he was munificent to Bologna. He patronized learning and welcomed scholars and artists to his court. He denounced the cruelty to the Native Americans in the disbanding of the Paraguay reductions. He was succeeded by Clement XIII.

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Why were Catholic colonists not inclined to follow the orders of their supreme religious leader? The first explanation that comes to mind is that there was a huge shortage of priests and higher clergy. Converting natives was their top priority. They crossed the ocean for that specific task. Little time was given to the spiritual care of Catholic colonists, or informing them about the content of the latest bull. Another reason could be that the migrants who had dared to travel to the other side of the earth tended to have a more independent mind than those who stayed at home. In general, sailors, soldiers, and those that had fled or been sent to a distant colony, often against their will, were less religious and law abiding than the rest of people. A third explanation could be that many colonists soon became disconnected from the way of life in the home country, gravitating towards a loose lifestyle, full of drinking, whoring and adultery. And last but not least, the demands of the pope did not fit their personal interests. Abolition would create a huge shortage of labourers and a considerable financial setback for slave holders. Who was going to do the work after the slaves would have left, and no new replacements could be found? Actually, most of the colonists were convinced that the economy would collapse without slavery.

Fr. Joel Panzer presents many examples of theologians, prelates and other Church officials who ignored, defied or slanted the orders of the pope.^[59]In 1840, John England, Bishop of Charleston, told US secretary of state John Forsyth that no pope ever had condemned slavery as it exists in America. Popes had only condemned the trade. We have learned that this was not true. Was Bishop England really convinced that the church always had accepted and condoned slavery or was he deliberately misinforming US Secretary John Forsyth? Bishop England was convinced that It was not the task of The Church to question the rights of slave owners. In his view, it sufficed to lessen the suffering of the slaves. Other US bishops shared his view. When, in 1840, the bishops of the Southern States convened in Baltimore, they too interpreted the letter of the Pope as a message that forbade the trade, but not the keeping of house slaves.

Apparently, these bishops, all raised in Southern Slave States, could not envisage that their infallible spiritual leader really did condemn slavery. This is a typical case of Group Think, as described by the Polish physician Ludvik Fleck and further discussed by sociologist Mary Douglas. Fleck observed that physicians of his day and age, refused to treat syphilis properly. In their view it was no disease at all, but a punishment of God for immoral behaviour.^[60] Apparently the large majority of American Bishops as well as their followers were caught in a similar Thought-Collective, believing that the divide between masters and slaves had been created by God. Many Prelates and priests might have realized that following the pope’s orders would mean that priests no longer could give the last prayers and ministrations to dying slave holders. For sure, that would generate nasty confrontations with devout Catholic slave owners.

That the leadership of the Catholic Church in America has reframed papal orders, explains why so many critics draw the wrong conclusion that the Vatican never showed a commitment to end slavery. This chapter has presented a number, though a rather small number popes that have issued decrees to make short shrift with colonial slavery. However, the words of these popes had little effect on the “New World.” Clearly, the popes control over the further diffusion and reception of these papal decrees. What was missing was the execution of sanctions that would have hurt disobedient members of the flock. The only thing that was achieved was that a very small number of Catholics established or joined abolition movements in the eighteenth and nineteenth century. Their activities were not unimportant. Their support helped to stop an atrocious practice wrongly viewed as a creation of God. This chapter shows that even Supreme Pontiffs had to fight against the might, power, interests and deep-seated views and attitudes of slave traders and owners, but also against a wide range of diehard cardinals, bishops and common Catholics.

But the times where changing. Even The Catholic Church could not stop that. In 1884, traffic in slaves was made a crime against the Law of Nations. 5 May 1888, Pope Leo XIII sent an encyclical to the Bishops of Brazil, titled In Plurimus (Among the many). He expressed his joy at the growth of the abolition movement in Brazil and enunciates that is not natural, that the Twelve Apostles of Jesus taught that all men are equal before God. He also wrote that the church Fathers and the Catholic church have always been opposed to slavery and that Christian do not enslave other Christians since they are brethren. These two statements are not true, but let us assume that Leo XIII deliberately used these false arguments to strengthen his own stance and to help convince his readers. Slavery was abolished in Brazil, a Catholic country, on the 13^th of May 1888. Finally, on that day, the imperial government yielded to the pressure of Brazilian abolitionists and public opinion. Princess Isabel de Bragança signed the Golden Law, which put an end to slavery in Brazil.

Pope Leo XIII praised the Bishops of Brazil with the end of slavery. Pope Leo XIII stressed that this was a very important historical event, but that it is even more important that all humans would be relieved from the slavery of sinning. He deplored the long existence of slavery. He truly believed that God had decreed that man should exercise a sort of royal dominion over beasts and cattle, over fish and fowl, but never that men should exercise dominion over their fellow men. No one should ignore the original brotherhood of the human race. No one should even begin to think of other humans as their inferiors, as cattle born to the yoke. From all the 250 popes that lived before him, very, very few have been so clear, and so outspoken about the non-Christianity and inhumanity of slavery.

The history of those sparse popes that explicitly forbade slavery, to begin with forbidding the enslavement of Christians, then the enslavement of indigenous people of America, and finally the enslavement of all people shows that issuing decrees only is a first step. They have to be implemented. Traders and owners have to be checked and punished when they don’t follow orders. The best way to do this is to confiscate all the money and possessions earned with slavery. But all popes lacked the worldly power to do this. The only thing they could do, but seldom did, was excommunicating people. The real political and legal power was in the hands of colonial governments. Far away from Rome, these secular governments and planters ignored papal bulls and went on with their shameful practice.[61]

Another reason for the lack of impact of papal doctrines was that the large majority of Catholics was illiterate and that bishops in the colonies thought it better not to inform local priests and parishioners about the latest papal stance on slavery. For sure, this was true for the bull of Eugene IV of 1435. This was only sent to the bishop of Lanzarote. Then, the art of printing was still unknown. Every copy had to be written by hand. It would take four more years before Gutenberg would demonstrate his first printing press.^[62] It would take many decades before the printing and large scale distribution of papal bulls became a feasible and cost effective business. But first, the Church needed some ardent abolitionists outside the ivory towers of The Vatican. Some of these staunch Catholic fighters against slavery will be presented in the chapters on the abolition movements and political processes in France and in Spain.

[1] Chapter 13 for my book project: From Ancient Slavery to Abolition. (Final draft 8/8/26 8939)

[2] J. Noonan: Development in Moral Doctrine. Theological Studies (54) 1993 p 662

[3] Fr. Joel Panzer: The Popes and Slavery. Setting the Record Straight: Staten Island: Alba House, 1996. www.churchinhistory.org/pages/…/slavery.htm. Retrieved: 27 March 2013

[4] Gregory of Nyssa. Wikipedia.org. Retrieved: 25 July2026. Wikipedia refers to St. Gregory of Nyssa, Homilies on Ecclesiastes, The evils of slave-owning; Hall and Moriarty, de Gruyter (New York, 1993) p. 74.

[5] Gregory of Nyssa (c. 335—c. 395 C.E.); Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy; iep.utm.edu. Retrieved: 25 July 2026.

[6] John Wijngaards: The Teaching Authority and Slavery: womenpriests.org. Data from: J.F. Maxwell, ‘The Development of Catholic Doctrine concerning Slavery’, World Jurist 11 (1969-70) pp. 147-192 and 291-324.

[7] David A. E. Pelteret: Slavery in Early Medieval England: The Boydell Press, 1995. P 183; Pete Jennings: The Dark Ages of Slavery: www.ealdfaeder.org. Retrieved: 19 February 2024; List of Popes and Councils and Theologians regarding Slavery: kingscollege.net. Retrieved: 27 September 202 as

[8] Now they are known as diocesan priests

[9] Jacqueline Murray, 20 May 2009: The Church’s Short Memory. www.theglobeandmail.com/opinion/the-churchs-short-memory/article1344139/

[10] Wijngaards Institute of Catholic Research: The Wives of the Clergy in the 12^th Century. womenpriests.org/sexuality/wives-the-wives-of-clergy-in-the-12th-century/ Retrieved: 29-10-2023. This article refers to Anne Llewellyn Barstow: Married Priests and the Reforming Papacy; The Eleventh Century Debates. E-Melle Press. 1982.

[11] This Day in History, November 27: www.history.com/this-day-in-history/pope-urban-ii-orders-first-crusade#: Retrieved 23-9-2021

[12] Primary Source 5:3. URBAN II, SPEECH AT THE COUNCIL OF CLERMONT (1095). In: Oliver J. Thatcher and Edgar Holmes McNeal, (Ed.), A Source Book for Medieval History: Selected Documents Illustrating the History of Europe in the Middle Age (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1905), 518-521.

[13] Urban II (1088-1099): Speech at Council of Clermont, 1095; Six Versions of the Speech. sourcebooks.fordham.edu/source/urban2-5vers.asp. Retrieved: 25-10-2023

[14] The Third Lateran Council – A.D. 1279: www.papalencyclicals.net/councils/ecum11.htm Retrieved 13 March 2018

[15] Wijngaards Institute for Catholic Research: The Teaching Authority and Slavery – Women Priests; https://womenpriests.org/ Retrieved: 2 February 2023. (This Ecumenical Council also supported the ban on women priests.)

[16] Eugene IV: Sicut Dudum.Against the Enslaving of Black Natives from the Canary Islands.

[17] The Third Lateran Council of 1279 stipulated that no one should be chosen bishop before the age of thirty. They must have shown to be worthy by his life and learning.

[18] Pope Eugene IV; Catholic Encyclopedia.: www.catholic.org. Retrieved: 11 March 2018

[19] Creator Omnium: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creator Omnium. Retrieved: 26-10-2023

[20] Papal Encyclicals Online, retrieved from www.papalencyclicals.net/eugene04/eugene04sicut.htm

[21] Paus Eugenius IV, Wikipedia. Retrieved: 11 September 2015

[22] Order of Christ (Portugal), military-history.fandom.com/wiki; Retrieved: 10 November 2023.

[23] Illius qui, December 19, 1442

[24] Dum Diversas (18 June 1452)’ Papal Encyclicals On Line: www.papalencyclicals.net

[25] Romanus Pontifex (1455); Papal Encyclicals On Line: www.papalencyclicals.net

[26] Idem

[27] Arlindo Caldeira: Portuguese Slave Trade. In; Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History (In progress). 30 January 2024. academic.oup.com. Retrieved: 23 June 2026. Slavery in Portugal. Wikipedia.org. Retrieved: 23 June 2026.

[28] Pope Innocent VIII, Wikipedia. Retrieved: 24-9-2021

[29] Bull Sumnis Desderantes Affectibus (1484).

[30] Innocente VIII: www.britannica.com. Retrieved 9 March 2018

[31] Alexander VI: newworldencyclopedia.org. Retrieved: 5 March 2024

[32] The Doctrine of Discovery, 1493: A Spotlight on a Primary Source by Alexander VI: The Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History. Retrieved: 9 October 2021

[33] Thornberry, Patrick (2002): Indigenous peoples and human rights; Manchester University Press.

[34] Catholic Social Teachings on Indigenous Peoples: Ecclesia in Oceania, 22 November 2001. 28. justiceandpeace.org.au/catholic-social-teaching-on-indigenous-peoples/

[35] Alexander VI facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia.com articles …

https://www.encyclopedia.com/…popes…antipopes/alexander-vi: Retrieved 17 March 2018

[36] Alexander VI, Wikipedia: Retrieved 14 March 2018

[37] Julius II, Wikipedia.org. Retrieved 18 March 2018

[38] www.britannica.com/biography/Julius-II. Retrieved 26 August 2019

[39] Inter Arcana: Wikipedia: Retrieved 18 March 2018; Hanke, Lewis (1937-04-01). “Pope Paul III and the American Indians”. The Harvard Theological Review. 30 (2): 76–78.

[40] Paus Eugenius IV, Wikipedia. Retrieved: 11 September 2015

[41] Consilium de emendenda ecclesia

[42] Also known asUnigenitus.

[43] Modern fighters for the rights of indigenous people reject the idea that outsiders have a right to convert indigenous people to their ideas, beliefs, norms and values. They interpret Sublimus Deus as a legitimation of conversion and cultural suppression albeit without physical violence, coercion or enslavement.

[44] The papal bull Non-IndecensVidetur (1538) effectively nullified Sublimus Deus.

[45] Non Indecens Videtur

[46] Pope Paul III, Wikipedia. Retrieved: 12 September 2015

[47] But to all who did receive him, who believed in his name, he gave the right to become children of God, John 1:12; Truly, truly, I say to you, whoever hears my word and believes him who sent me has eternal life. He does not come into judgment, but has passed from death to life. John 5:24

[48] Pope Paul III, motu proprio 9 November 1548

[49] Catholic Encyclopedia, Church Fathers: Retrieved: 15 September 2013

[50] Descendants of Henry IV of France, Wikipedia.org: Retrieved 11 April 2022.

[51] Pope Gregory XIV: Wikipedia. Retrieved 10 March 2018

[52] Miguel López de Legazpi, Wikipedia: Retrieved: 15 September 2015.

[53] Paul Layman. Theologica Moralis: Quoted in: List of Popes and Councils and Theologians regarding Slavery: .kingscollege.net/gbrodie/Popes%20and%20Councils%20list%20-%20Slavery.html. Retrieved: 27-09-2021

[54] en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Urban_VIII. Retrieved 27-1-2019

[55] Benedict XIV: Encyclopedia of World Biography. The Gale Group Inc. Retrieved 14 March 2018. Catholic Encyclopedia, Volume II, Robert Appleton Company, 1907/2002

[56] Benedict XIV: Immensa pastorum principis. 20 December 1741. List of Popes and Councils and Theologians regarding Slavery: .kingscollege.net/gbrodie/Popes%20and%20Councils%20list%20-%20Slavery.html. Retrieved: 27-09-2021

[57] Pope Pius VII; Wikipedia.org. Retrieved: 17-7-2026.

[58] In Supremo Apostolatus was read during the 4th Provincial Council of Baltimore, 3-12-1839.

[59] Panzer: o. c.

[60] Ludvik Fleck: The Genesis and Development of a scientific fact. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press 1999 (1939). Mary Douglas: How Institutions Think. Syracuse N.Y.: Syracuse University Press. 1986. (See also my chapter on the work of Mary Douglas in Icons of Sociology/Grootmeesters van de sociologie. Boom, Amsterdam.)

[61] In Supremo Apostolatus. December 4. 1839. www.kingscollege.net/gbrodie/Timeline%201839%20-%20In%20Supremo.html

[62] Gutenberg’s printing technique was far better than the simple method invented by the Chinese Bi Sheng, 400 years earlier.